爬虫（107）Python 3.7的超酷新功能（接近一万字，请耐心享用，而且建议收藏）

def divide(e, f):
    return f / e

a, b = 0, 1
print(divide(a, b))

def divide(e, f):
    # Insert breakpoint here
    return f / e

def divide(e, f):
    import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
    return f / e

def divide(e, f):
    breakpoint()
    return f / e

$ python bugs.py
> bugs.py(3)divide()
-> return f / e
(Pdb)

$ PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0 python3.7 bugs.py
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

$ PYTHONBREAKPOINT=pudb.set_trace python3.7 bugs.py

$ PYTHONBREAKPOINT=IPython.embed python3.7 bugs.py
IPython 6.3.1 -- An enhanced Interactive Python. Type '?' for help.

In [1]: print(e / f)
0.0

from pprint import pprint
import sys

def print_locals():
    caller = sys._getframe(1)  # Caller is 1 frame up.
    pprint(caller.f_locals)

$ PYTHONBREAKPOINT=bp_utils.print_locals python3.7 bugs.py
{'e': 0, 'f': 1}
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

breakpoint(e, f, end="<-END\n")

$ PYTHONBREAKPOINT=print python3.7 bugs.py
0 1<-END
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

from dataclasses import dataclass, field

@dataclass(order=True)
class Country:
    name: str
    population: int
    area: float = field(repr=False, compare=False)
    coastline: float = 0

    def beach_per_person(self):
        """Meters of coastline per person"""
        return (self.coastline * 1000) / self.population

class Country:

    def __init__(self, name, population, area, coastline=0):
        self.name = name
        self.population = population
        self.area = area
        self.coastline = coastline

    def __repr__(self):
        return (
            f"Country(name={self.name!r}, population={self.population!r},"
            f" coastline={self.coastline!r})"
        )

    def __eq__(self, other):
        if other.__class__ is self.__class__:
            return (
                (self.name, self.population, self.coastline)
                == (other.name, other.population, other.coastline)
            )
        return NotImplemented

    def __ne__(self, other):
        if other.__class__ is self.__class__:
            return (
                (self.name, self.population, self.coastline)
                != (other.name, other.population, other.coastline)
            )
        return NotImplemented

    def __lt__(self, other):
        if other.__class__ is self.__class__:
            return ((self.name, self.population, self.coastline) < (
                other.name, other.population, other.coastline
            ))
        return NotImplemented

    def __le__(self, other):
        if other.__class__ is self.__class__:
            return ((self.name, self.population, self.coastline) <= (
                other.name, other.population, other.coastline
            ))
        return NotImplemented

    def __gt__(self, other):
        if other.__class__ is self.__class__:
            return ((self.name, self.population, self.coastline) > (
                other.name, other.population, other.coastline
            ))
        return NotImplemented

    def __ge__(self, other):
        if other.__class__ is self.__class__:
            return ((self.name, self.population, self.coastline) >= (
                other.name, other.population, other.coastline
            ))
        return NotImplemented

    def beach_per_person(self):
        """Meters of coastline per person"""
        return (self.coastline * 1000) / self.population

>>> norway = Country("Norway", 5320045, 323802, 58133)
>>> norway
Country(name='Norway', population=5320045, coastline=58133)

>>> norway.area
323802

>>> usa = Country("United States", 326625791, 9833517, 19924)
>>> nepal = Country("Nepal", 29384297, 147181)
>>> nepal
Country(name='Nepal', population=29384297, coastline=0)

>>> usa.beach_per_person()
0.06099946957342386

>>> norway.beach_per_person()
10.927163210085629

>>> norway == norway
True

>>> nepal == usa
False

>>> sorted((norway, usa, nepal))
[Country(name='Nepal', population=29384297, coastline=0),
 Country(name='Norway', population=5320045, coastline=58133),
 Country(name='United States', population=326625791, coastline=19924)]

import random

random_attr = random.choice(("gammavariate", "lognormvariate", "normalvariate"))
random_func = getattr(random, random_attr)

print(f"A {random_attr} random value: {random_func(1, 1)}")

A gammavariate random value: 2.8017715125270618

from importlib import import_module
from importlib import resources

PLUGINS = dict()

def register_plugin(func):
    """Decorator to register plug-ins"""
    name = func.__name__
    PLUGINS[name] = func
    return func

def __getattr__(name):
    """Return a named plugin"""
    try:
        return PLUGINS[name]
    except KeyError:
        _import_plugins()
        if name in PLUGINS:
            return PLUGINS[name]
        else:
            raise AttributeError(
                f"module {__name__!r} has no attribute {name!r}"
            ) from None

def __dir__():
    """List available plug-ins"""
    _import_plugins()
    return list(PLUGINS.keys())

def _import_plugins():
    """Import all resources to register plug-ins"""
    for name in resources.contents(__name__):
        if name.endswith(".py"):
            import_module(f"{__name__}.{name[:-3]}")

from . import register_plugin

@register_plugin
def hello_1():
    print("Hello from Plugin 1")

from . import register_plugin

@register_plugin
def hello_2():
    print("Hello from Plugin 2")

@register_plugin
def goodbye():
    print("Plugin 2 says goodbye")

>>> import plugins
>>> plugins.hello_1()
Hello from Plugin 1

>>> dir(plugins)
['goodbye', 'hello_1', 'hello_2']

>>> plugins.goodbye()
Plugin 2 says goodbye

def __getattr__(name):
    """Return a named plugin"""
    try:
        return PLUGINS[name]        # 1) Try to return plugin
    except KeyError:
        _import_plugins()           # 2) Import all plugins
        if name in PLUGINS:
            return PLUGINS[name]    # 3) Try to return plugin again
        else:
            raise AttributeError(   # 4) Raise error
                f"module {__name__!r} has no attribute {name!r}"
            ) from None

def _import_plugins():
    """Import all resources to register plug-ins"""
    for name in resources.contents(__name__):
        if name.endswith(".py"):
            import_module(f"{__name__}.{name[:-3]}")

>>> import plugins
>>> plugins.PLUGINS
{}

>>> import plugins.plugin_1
>>> plugins.PLUGINS
{'hello_1': <function hello_1 at 0x7f29d4341598>}

>>> dir(plugins)
['goodbye', 'hello_1', 'hello_2']

>>> plugins.PLUGINS
{'hello_1': <function hello_1 at 0x7f29d4341598>,
 'hello_2': <function hello_2 at 0x7f29d4341620>,
 'goodbye': <function goodbye at 0x7f29d43416a8>}

>>> import plugins
>>> dir(plugins)
['PLUGINS', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__',
 '__file__', '__getattr__', '__loader__', '__name__',
 '__package__', '__path__', '__spec__', '_import_plugins',
 'import_module', 'register_plugin', 'resources']

def __dir__():
    """List available plug-ins"""
    _import_plugins()
    return list(PLUGINS.keys())

class Tree:
    def __init__(self, left: Tree, right: Tree) -> None:
        self.left = left
        self.right = right

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "tree.py", line 1, in <module>
    class Tree:
  File "tree.py", line 2, in Tree
    def __init__(self, left: Tree, right: Tree) -> None:
NameError: name 'Tree' is not defined

class Tree:
    def __init__(self, left: "Tree", right: "Tree") -> None:
        self.left = left
        self.right = right

from __future__ import annotations

class Tree:
    def __init__(self, left: Tree, right: Tree) -> None:
        self.left = left
        self.right = right

def greet(name: print("Now!")):
    print(f"Hello {name}")

>>> import anno
Now!

>>> anno.greet.__annotations__
{'name': None}

>>> anno.greet("Alice")
Hello Alice

from __future__ import annotations

def greet(name: print("Now!")):
    print(f"Hello {name}")

>>> import anno

>>> anno.greet.__annotations__
{'name': "print('Now!')"}

>>> anno.greet("Marty")
Hello Marty

>>> import typing
>>> typing.get_type_hints(anno.greet)
Now!
{'name': <class 'NoneType'>}

>>> eval(anno.greet.__annotations__["name"])
Now!

>>> anno.greet.__annotations__
{'name': "print('Now!')"}

>>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1
0.30000000000000004

>>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
False

>>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta
>>> datetime(2018, 6, 27) + timedelta(seconds=1e-6)
datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 27, 0, 0, 0, 1)

>>> datetime(2018, 6, 27) + timedelta(seconds=1e-9)
datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 27, 0, 0)

>>> from astropy.time import Time, TimeDelta
>>> Time("2018-06-27")
<Time object: scale='utc' format='iso' value=2018-06-27 00:00:00.000>

>>> t = Time("2018-06-27") + TimeDelta(1e-9, format="sec")
>>> (t - Time("2018-06-27")).sec
9.976020010071807e-10

>>> {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}  # Python <= 3.5
{'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2}

>>> {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}  # Python >= 3.6
{'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}

>>> async = 1
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    async = 1
          ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

>>> def await():
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    def await():
            ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

import asyncio

async def hello_world():
    print("Hello World!")

asyncio.run(hello_world())

import contextvars

name = contextvars.ContextVar("name")
contexts = list()

def greet():
    print(f"Hello {name.get()}")

# Construct contexts and set the context variable name
for first_name in ["Steve", "Dina", "Harry"]:
    ctx = contextvars.copy_context()
    ctx.run(name.set, first_name)
    contexts.append(ctx)

# Run greet function inside each context
for ctx in reversed(contexts):
    ctx.run(greet)

$ python context_demo.py
Hello Harry
Hello Dina
Hello Steve

data/
│
├── alice_in_wonderland.txt
└── __init__.py

>>> from importlib import resources
>>> with resources.open_text("data", "alice_in_wonderland.txt") as fid:
...     alice = fid.readlines()
... 
>>> print("".join(alice[:7]))
CHAPTER I. Down the Rabbit-Hole

Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the
bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the
book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in
it, "and what is the use of a book," thought Alice "without pictures or
conversations?"

$ python  -X importtime my_script.py
import time: self [us] | cumulative | imported package
import time:      2607 |       2607 | _frozen_importlib_external
...
import time:       844 |      28866 |   importlib.resources
import time:       404 |      30434 | plugins